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Bayesian reliability estimation

Description

When samples contain missing data, are small, or are suspected of bias, estimation of scale reliability may not be trustworthy. A recommended solution for this common problem has been Bayesian model estimation. Bayesian methods rely on user specified information from historical data or researcher intuition to more accurately estimate the parameters. This package provides a user friendly interface for estimating test reliability. Here, reliability is modeled as a beta distributed random variable with shape parameters alpha=true score variance and beta=error variance.

Contact information

Author: Joshua Ray Tanzer

Email: jtanzer@lifespan.org

Functions

Prior selection

In this package, reliability is modeled as a beta distributed random variable. This distribution was selected because of the clear concordance between how reliability is defined and the probable values for a beta distribution. Scale reliability is defined as true score variance/(true score variance+error variance), and the range of possible values are from 0 to 1. A beta distribution is defined by two parameters, alpha and beta, the range is also from 0 to 1, and the expected value is alpha/(alpha+beta). It follows that modeling scale reliability as a beta distribution, alpha is interpreted as true score variance and beta as error variance. This approach is more robust to small samples and missing at random data. Further, the credible interval will be more appropriately scaled to the range of probable values; compared to a confidence interval, which assumes a normal distribution of errors.

While this provides a methodical framework to more carefully model reliability, it is necessary to specify prior shape parameters, which may not be intuitive. Historical data can be used to inform priors, however not all methods for estimating reliability clearly dilineate between true score variance and error variance (ie, reliability estimated from correlation). As a solution, a more intuitive approach is proposed from beta quantiles. If it is believed with 90% confidence that reliability will likely be between 0.40 and 0.90, then the shape parameters for the beta distribution containing quantile limits at the specified values can be solved for. As a more intuitive solution, it is proposed that the prior could be based on the shape parameters for a beta distribution given specified quantile limits. The beta.parms.from.quantiles function by Lawrence Joseph and Patrick Belisle is provided in the example to solve for these shape parameter values, to simplify prior selection estimation.

Item Scaling

Because this method uses a beta distribution to infer the probable values of reliability, the larger the variance, true and error, the more precise the estimate. It follows that two tests scaled at different ranges (e.g. 1 to 7 versus 1 to 100) would have vastly different reliability estimates as a function of their scaling minimum and maximum. To address this, it is strongly recommended that each item be standardized before being summed to provide a composite score. This will result in precision of estimate that is a function of test length rather than item scaling, which is already an expected and documented relationship. The standardize function is provided to easily standardize item scores. Additionally, the the user can specify the number of items on the test in the event that scores are already summed into composites. If this is the case (e.g. if test retest reliability is desired but the individual item responses are missing), the composite scores can be standardized and the number of items on the test can be specified. This will properly rescale the precision of reliability estimates to the test length.

Examples

Prior from quantiles

The beta.parms.from.quantiles function can be loaded as follows:

beta.parms.from.quantiles <- function(q, p=c(0.025,0.975),
  precision=0.001, derivative.epsilon=1e-3, start.with.normal.approx=T, start=c(1, 1), plot=F)
{
  # Version 1.3 (February 2017)
  #
  # Function developed by 
  # Lawrence Joseph and pbelisle
  # Division of Clinical Epidemiology
  # Montreal General Hospital
  # Montreal, Qc, Can
  #
  # patrick.belisle@rimuhc.ca
  # http://www.medicine.mcgill.ca/epidemiology/Joseph/PBelisle/BetaParmsFromQuantiles.html
  #
  # Please refer to our webpage for details on each argument.
  
  f <- function(x, theta){dbeta(x, shape1=theta[1], shape2=theta[2])}
  F.inv <- function(x, theta){qbeta(x, shape1=theta[1], shape2=theta[2])}
  f.cum <- function(x, theta){pbeta(x, shape1=theta[1], shape2=theta[2])}
  f.mode <- function(theta){a <- theta[1]; b <- theta[2]; mode <- ifelse(a>1, (a-1)/(a+b-2), NA); mode}
  theta.from.moments <- function(m, v){a <- m*m*(1-m)/v-m; b <- a*(1/m-1); c(a, b)}
  plot.xlim <- c(0, 1)
  
  dens.label <- 'dbeta'
  parms.names <- c('a', 'b')
  
  if (length(p) != 2) stop("Vector of probabilities p must be of length 2.")
  if (length(q) != 2) stop("Vector of quantiles q must be of length 2.")
  p <- sort(p); q <- sort(q)
  
  #_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
        
  print.area.text <- function(p, p.check, q, f, f.cum, F.inv, theta, mode, cex, plot.xlim, M=30, M0=50)
  {
    par.usr <- par('usr')
    par.din <- par('din')

    p.string <- as.character(round(c(0,1) + c(1,-1)*p.check, digits=4))
    str.width <- strwidth(p.string, cex=cex)
    str.height <- strheight("0", cex=cex)

    J <- matrix(1, nrow=M0, ncol=1)
    
    x.units.1in <- diff(par.usr[c(1,2)])/par.din[1]
    y.units.1in <- diff(par.usr[c(3,4)])/par.din[2]
    aspect.ratio <- y.units.1in/x.units.1in

    # --- left area  -----------------------------------------------------------

    scatter.xlim <- c(max(plot.xlim[1], par.usr[1]), q[1])
    scatter.ylim <- c(0, par.usr[4])
    x <- seq(from=scatter.xlim[1], to=scatter.xlim[2], length=M)
    y <- seq(from=scatter.ylim[1], to=scatter.ylim[2], length=M)
    x.grid.index <- rep(seq(M), M)
    y.grid.index <- rep(seq(M), rep(M, M))

    grid.df <- f(x, theta)

    # Estimate mass center
    tmp.p <- seq(from=0, to=p[1], length=M0)
    tmp.x <- F.inv(tmp.p, theta)
    h <- f(tmp.x, theta)
    mass.center <- c(mean(tmp.x), sum(h[-1]*diff(tmp.x))/diff(range(tmp.x)))

    # Identify points under the curve
    # (to eliminate them from the list of candidates)
    gridpoint.under.the.curve <- y[y.grid.index] <= grid.df[x.grid.index]
    w <- which(gridpoint.under.the.curve)
    x <- x[x.grid.index]; y <- y[y.grid.index]
    if (length(w)){x <- x[-w]; y <- y[-w]}

    # Eliminate points to the right of the mode, if any
    w <- which(x>mode)
    if (length(w)){x <- x[-w]; y <- y[-w]}

    # Eliminate points for which the text would fall out of the plot area
    w <- which((par.usr[1]+str.width[1]) <= x & (y + str.height) <= par.usr[4])
    x <- x[w]; y <- y[w]

    # For each height, eliminate the closest point to the curve
    # (we want to stay away from the curve to preserve readability)
    w <- which(!duplicated(y, fromLast=T))
    if (length(w)){x <- x[-w]; y <- y[-w]}

    # For each point, compute distance from mass center and pick the closest point
    d <- ((x-mass.center[1])^2) + ((y-mass.center[2])/aspect.ratio)^2
    w <- which.min(d)
    x <- x[w]; y <- y[w]
    
    if (length(x))
    {
      text(x, y, labels=p.string[1], adj=c(1,0), col='gray', cex=cex)
    }
    else
    {
      text(plot.xlim[1], mean(par.usr[c(3,4)]), labels=p.string[1], col='gray', cex=cex, srt=90, adj=c(1,0))
    }

    # --- right area  ----------------------------------------------------------

    scatter.xlim <- c(q[2], plot.xlim[2])
    scatter.ylim <- c(0, par.usr[4])
    x <- seq(from=scatter.xlim[1], to=scatter.xlim[2], length=M)
    y <- seq(from=scatter.ylim[1], to=scatter.ylim[2], length=M)
    x.grid.index <- rep(seq(M), M)
    y.grid.index <- rep(seq(M), rep(M, M))
    grid.df <- f(x, theta)

    # Estimate mass center
    tmp.p <- seq(from=p[2], to=f.cum(plot.xlim[2], theta), length=M0)
    tmp.x <- F.inv(tmp.p, theta)
    h <- f(tmp.x, theta)
    mass.center <- c(mean(tmp.x), sum(h[-length(h)]*diff(tmp.x))/diff(range(tmp.x)))

    # Identify points under the curve
    # (to eliminate them from the list of candidates)
    gridpoint.under.the.curve <- y[y.grid.index] <= grid.df[x.grid.index]
    w <- which(gridpoint.under.the.curve)
    x <- x[x.grid.index]; y <- y[y.grid.index]
    if (length(w)){x <- x[-w]; y <- y[-w]}

    # Eliminate points to the left of the mode, if any
    w <- which(x<mode)
    if (length(w)){x <- x[-w]; y <- y[-w]}

    # Eliminate points for which the text would fall out of the plot area
    w <- which((par.usr[2]-str.width[2]) >= x & (y + str.height) <= par.usr[4])
    x <- x[w]; y <- y[w]

    # For each height, eliminate the closest point to the curve
    # (we want to stay away from the curve to preserve readability)
    w <- which(!duplicated(y))
    if (length(w)){x <- x[-w]; y <- y[-w]}

    # For each point, compute distance from mass center and pick the closest point
    d <- ((x-mass.center[1])^2) + ((y-mass.center[2])/aspect.ratio)^2
    w <- which.min(d)
    x <- x[w]; y <- y[w]
    
    if (length(x))
    {
      text(x, y, labels=p.string[2], adj=c(0,0), col='gray', cex=cex)
    }
    else
    {
      text(plot.xlim[2], mean(par.usr[c(3,4)]), labels=p.string[2], col='gray', cex=cex, srt=-90, adj=c(1,0))
    }
  }
  
  # ......................................................................................................................................
  
  Newton.Raphson <- function(derivative.epsilon, precision, f.cum, p, q, theta.from.moments, start.with.normal.approx, start)
  {
    Hessian <- matrix(NA, 2, 2)

    if (start.with.normal.approx)
    {
      # Probably not a very good universal choice, but proved good in most cases in practice
      m <-  diff(q)/diff(p)*(0.5-p[1]) + q[1]
      v <- (diff(q)/diff(qnorm(p)))^2
      theta <- theta.from.moments(m, v)
    }
    else theta <- start
  
  
    change <- precision + 1
    niter <- 0
    # Newton-Raphson multivariate algorithm
    while (max(abs(change)) > precision)
    {
      Hessian[,1] <- (f.cum(q, theta) - f.cum(q, theta - c(derivative.epsilon, 0))) / derivative.epsilon
      Hessian[,2] <- (f.cum(q, theta) - f.cum(q, theta - c(0, derivative.epsilon))) / derivative.epsilon
  
      f <- f.cum(q, theta) - p
      change <- solve(Hessian) %*% f
      last.theta <- theta
      theta <- last.theta - change
  
      # If we step out of limits, reduce change
  
      if (any(theta<0))
      {
        w <- which(theta<0)
        k <- min(last.theta[w]/change[w])
        theta <- last.theta - k/2*change
      }
      
      niter <- niter + 1
    }
    
    list(theta=as.vector(theta), niter=niter, last.change=as.vector(change))
  }
  
  # ...............................................................................................................
  
  plot.density <- function(p, q, f, f.cum, F.inv, mode, theta, plot.xlim, dens.label, parms.names, cex)
  {
    if (length(plot.xlim) == 0)
    {
      plot.xlim <- F.inv(c(0, 1), theta)
      
      if (is.infinite(plot.xlim[1]))
      {
        tmp <- min(c(0.001, p[1]/10))
        plot.xlim[1] <- F.inv(tmp, theta)
      }  
      
      if (is.infinite(plot.xlim[2]))
      {
        tmp <- max(c(0.999, 1 - (1-p[2])/10))
        plot.xlim[2] <- F.inv(tmp, theta)
      }
    }
    plot.xlim <- sort(plot.xlim)
  
  
    x <- seq(from=min(plot.xlim), to=max(plot.xlim), length=1000)
    h <- f(x, theta)
    x0 <- x; f0 <- h
    ylab <- paste(c(dens.label, '(x, ', parms.names[1], ' = ', round(theta[1], digits=5), ', ', parms.names[2], ' = ', round(theta[2], digits=5), ')'), collapse='')
    plot(x, h, type='l', ylab=ylab)

    # fill in area on the left side of the distribution
    x <- seq(from=plot.xlim[1], to=q[1], length=1000)
    y <- f(x, theta)
    x <- c(x, q[1], plot.xlim[1]); y <- c(y, 0, 0)
    polygon(x, y, col='lightgrey', border='lightgray')
    # fill in area on the right side of the distribution
    x <- seq(from=max(plot.xlim), to=q[2], length=1000)
    y <- f(x, theta)
    x <- c(x, q[2], plot.xlim[2]); y <- c(y, 0, 0)
    polygon(x, y, col='lightgrey', border='lightgray')
    # draw distrn again
    points(x0, f0, type='l')
    h <- f(q, theta)
    points(rep(q[1], 2), c(0, h[1]), type='l', col='orange')
    points(rep(q[2], 2), c(0, h[2]), type='l', col='orange')
    # place text on both ends areas
    print.area.text(p, p.check, q, f, f.cum, F.inv, theta, mode, cex, plot.xlim)  

    xaxp <- par("xaxp")
    x.ticks <- seq(from=xaxp[1], to=xaxp[2], length=xaxp[3]+1)
    q2print <- as.double(setdiff(as.character(q), as.character(x.ticks)))
    
    mtext(q2print, side=1, col='orange', at=q2print, cex=0.6, line=2.1)
    points(q, rep(par('usr')[3]+0.15*par('cxy')[2], 2), pch=17, col='orange')
  }
  
  #________________________________________________________________________________________________________________


  parms <- Newton.Raphson(derivative.epsilon, precision, f.cum, p, q, theta.from.moments, start.with.normal.approx, start=start)
  p.check <- f.cum(q, parms$theta)
  
  if (plot) plot.density(p, q, f, f.cum, F.inv, f.mode(parms$theta), parms$theta, plot.xlim, dens.label, parms.names, 0.8)

  list(a=parms$theta[1], b=parms$theta[2], last.change=parms$last.change, niter=parms$niter, q=q, p=p, p.check=p.check)
}

So if you wanted 90% quantile limits (ie limits at 5% and 95%) that land at 0.4 and 0.9, then the following code can be used.

CL=c(0.05,0.95)
Values=c(0.4,0.9)
beta.parms.from.quantiles(Values,CL)

The resultant values are alpha=3.51 and beta=1.75.

bomega function with blavaan file

First, a measurement model needs to be fit using blavaan.

mod='f=~X1+X2+X3+X4+X5'

fit=bsem(mod,data=your_data)

Then, read in the fitted blavaan model to the bomega statement. Here, K=5 because there are five items.

bomega(mod=fit,k=5,alpha=3.51,beta=1.75,CI=0.95)

brxx_ICC function from blme file

First, the ICC needs to be estimated using blme.

fit=blmer(Y~(1|ID),data=your_data)

Then, read in the fitted blme model to the brxx_ICC statement.

brxx_ICC(mod=fit,alpha=3.51,beta=1.75,CI=0.95)

Bayesian factor analysis using Stan

To estimate a Bayesian factor analysis model, stan software can be used based on the following model code:

fa="
data {
int<lower=0> N; // Number of observations
int<lower=0> P; // Number of items
int<lower=0> Q; // Number of latent dimensions
matrix[N, P] D_O; // Observed data matrix
matrix[P, Q] Load_Prior; // Prior loading matrix
matrix[P, P] I; //Identity matrix
matrix[N,P] R; //Missing data matrix
}

parameters {
matrix[N, Q] X; // Latent trait matrix
matrix[P, Q] Lambda; // Loading matrix
vector[P] tau; // Grand mean vector
vector<lower=0>[Q] alpha; // Loading variance vector
}

model {
matrix [N,P] X_Loading;
matrix [N,P] D_I;
for (i in 1:N) for (p in 1:P) 
X_Loading[i,p]=X[i,]*Lambda[p,]';
for (i in 1:N) for (p in 1:P) 
D_I[i,p]=D_O[i,p]*(1-R[i,p])+X_Loading[i,p]'*(R[i,p])+tau[p];

for (i in 1:N) for (q in 1:Q) X[i,q] ~ normal(0,1);
for (i in 1:N) tau ~ normal(0,1);
for(q in 1:Q) alpha[q] ~ inv_gamma(1e-4,1e-4);
for(q in 1:Q) Lambda[,q] ~ multi_normal(Load_Prior[,q], sqrt(alpha[q])*I);
for(i in 1:N) for (p in 1:P) D_I[i,p]~ normal(X_Loading[i,p]+tau[p], 1);
}

"

model=stan_model(model_code = fa)

This step may take some time, as Stan needs to rewrite the model code in C++. Note that this model accounts for missing data by imputing the missing values with the expected values for individuals at each subsequent iteration of posterior sampling. Raw data files can be prepared this model by the standardize and format functions.

your_data_miss_s=standardize(your_data_miss)
formatted_data=prep(your_data_miss_s,nfactors=3)

Sampling the posterior distributions using this model can be saved in an S by Theta matrix using the following code. This may also take some time, as the model reiterates parameter estimation.

out=sampling(model, data=formatted_data, iter=5000, seed=999)
res=as.matrix(out)

Model convergence diagnostics can be summarized with

plot(effectiveSize(Loading_Matrix),main="Effective Sample Size",ylab="N")
lines(rep(nrow(res),ncol(res)),col="red",lty=2)

plot(geweke.diag(res)$z,main="Geweke Diagnostic",ylab="Z")
lines(rep(1.96,ncol(res)),col="red",lty=2)
lines(rep(-1.96,ncol(res)),col="red",lty=2)

and individual trace plots can be examined using:

plot(res[,1])
lines(res[,1])

All parameters should be visually examined for convergence. The individual matrices of the factor analysis model can be separated out with the unpack function:

unpacked=unpack(Samples=res,Format=formatted_data)

and the loadings can be rotated and further processed using the process function.

processed=process(Loading_Matrix=unpacked$Loading_Matrix,
                  Format=formatted_data,
                  Rotate="oblimin")

Lastly, final summary tables of all relevant information can be created using

summarize(processed$Loadings,
          nrow=Formatted_data$P,
          ncol=Formatted_data$Q)$Table
summarize(processed$Communality,
          nrow=Formatted_data$P,
          ncol=1)$Table
summarize(processed$Uniqueness,
          nrow=Formatted_data$P,
          ncol=1)$Table
summarize(processed$G_Factor,
          nrow=Formatted_data$P,
          ncol=1)$Table
summarize(processed$Interfactor_Correlations,
          nrow=Formatted_data$Q,
          ncol=Formatted_data$Q)$Table
summarize(processed$Omega,
          nrow=1,
          ncol=1)$Table
summarize(unpacked$Tau_Matrix,
          nrow=Formatted_data$P,
          ncol=1)$Table

Acknowledgements

Many thanks to Lisa Harlow for all her support and guidance. Thanks to David Rindskopf for his recommendation on prior selection. Thanks to Lawrence Joseph and Patrick Belisle for the beta.parms.from.quantiles function. Lastly, thanks to Jing Wu for her guidance on Bayesian methods.

Many ideas grow better when transplanted into another mind than the one where they sprang up

License

MIT

Travis build status

These binaries (installable software) and packages are in development.
They may not be fully stable and should be used with caution. We make no claims about them.