# Variance estimation

weightflow computes weights and also estimates their variances. This vignette shows a few ways to obtain standard errors from a weightflow recipe, and how they relate: a recipe-aware bootstrap, a survey-package linearization, and a recipe-aware jackknife.

Throughout, \(U\) is the population and \(s\) the sample; \(w_i\) is the final weight of unit \(i\); and a population total is written \(Y = \sum_{i \in U} y_i\), estimated by \(\hat Y = \sum_{i \in s} w_i\,y_i\). The sample is drawn in clusters: primary sampling units (PSUs) nested in strata.

## Why the adjustments matter for variance

A weighting recipe rarely stops at the design weight. It redistributes unknown eligibility, drops out-of-scope units, adjusts for nonresponse and calibrates to known totals. Each of those stages is estimated from the sample, so each one adds (or, for calibration, often removes) variability.

A linearization that takes the final weights as fixed and applies the ultimate-cluster formula ignores that the nonresponse and calibration steps were themselves estimated. The cleanest way to account for them is to re-run the whole recipe on each replicate, so the replicate weights carry the variability of every stage.

## Method 1: a PSU bootstrap that re-applies the recipe

`bootstrap_weights()` resamples primary sampling units (PSUs) with replacement within strata and re-runs the recipe on each replicate. Pass the inert recipe (do not call `prep()` first): the bootstrap preps it once per replicate.

    dat <- sample_one
    dat$age_grp <- cut(dat$age, c(0, 30, 45, 60, Inf),
                       labels = c("18-30", "31-45", "46-60", "60+"))

    spec <- weighting_spec(dat, base_weights = pw) |>
      step_unknown_eligibility(unknown = unknown_elig, by = "region",
                               cluster = "household_id") |>
      step_drop_ineligible(ineligible = ineligible) |>
      step_nonresponse(respondent = hh_responded, method = "weighting_class",
                       by = "region", cluster = "household_id") |>
      step_select_within(prob = p_within) |>
      step_nonresponse(respondent = responded, method = "weighting_class",
                       by = c("region", "sex", "age_grp")) |>
      step_calibrate(method = "raking",
                     margins = list(region = c(table(population$region)),
                                    sex    = c(table(population$sex))))

    boot <- bootstrap_weights(spec, replicates = 200, strata = "region",
                              psu = "psu", seed = 2024, progress = FALSE)
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    boot
    #> <weightflow bootstrap>
    #>   replicates : 200
    #>   units      : 417 (active: 209)
    #>   strata     : region
    #>   psu        : psu

The multiplier is the Rao-Wu rescaling bootstrap. Consider a stratum \(h\) with \(n_h\) PSUs, from which \(m_h\) are drawn with replacement (by default \(m_h = n_h - 1\)). Let \(t_{hi}^{*}\) be the number of times PSU \(i\) is selected in a replicate. Every unit in that PSU has its weight rescaled by

\[\lambda_{hi} = 1 - \sqrt{\tfrac{m_h}{n_h - 1}} + \sqrt{\tfrac{m_h}{n_h - 1}}\;\frac{n_h}{m_h}\,t_{hi}^{*},\]

so the replicate weight is \(w_i^{*} = \lambda_{hi}\,w_i\). The factor has expectation one over the resampling, \(\mathbb{E}(\lambda_{hi}) = 1\), which keeps each replicate design-unbiased, and the construction never turns it negative, so the recipe can be re-prepped on every replicate without invalid weights. Whole PSUs are kept together (every unit in a drawn PSU is retained), as the design’s clustering requires.

### Estimates with bootstrap standard errors

Writing \(\hat\theta\) for the point estimate and \(\hat\theta_b\) for its value on replicate \(b\) (each computed from the re-prepped replicate weights), the bootstrap variance is the average squared deviation across the \(B\) replicates,

\[\widehat{\operatorname{Var}}(\hat\theta) = \frac{1}{B} \sum_{b=1}^{B} \big(\hat\theta_b - \hat\theta\big)^2 .\]

    boot_mean(boot,  "income")     # mean income
    #>   estimate       se ci_lower ci_upper
    #> 1 21615.21 884.4228 19881.77 23348.65
    boot_total(boot, "employed")   # total employed
    #>   estimate       se ci_lower ci_upper
    #> 1 1927.219 145.0993  1642.83 2211.609
    boot_mean(boot,  "employed")   # employment rate
    #>    estimate         se  ci_lower  ci_upper
    #> 1 0.4287473 0.03228016 0.3654794 0.4920153

For any other statistic, pass a function of the weights and the data to `bootstrap_estimate()`:

    bootstrap_estimate(boot, function(w, d) {
      ok <- !is.na(d$income) & w > 0
      stats::median(rep(d$income[ok], times = round(w[ok])))   # weighted median (approx.)
    })
    #>   estimate       se ci_lower ci_upper
    #> 1    18136 991.6204 16192.46 20079.54

## Method 2: hand the weights to the survey package

`as_svydesign()` builds an ultimate-cluster linearization design from a prepped recipe. It is fast, but treats the calibration as fixed.

    fitted <- prep(spec)
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    des <- as_svydesign(fitted, ids = "psu", strata = "region")
    survey::svymean(~income, des, na.rm = TRUE)
    #>         mean     SE
    #> income 21615 989.34

To keep the recipe’s adjustments in the variance while still using survey, feed it the bootstrap replicate weights from method 1:

    rep_des <- as_svrepdesign(boot)
    survey::svymean(~income, rep_des, na.rm = TRUE)
    #>         mean     SE
    #> income 21615 884.42

This matches `boot_mean(boot, "income")` exactly, because `as_svrepdesign()` sets `scale = 1 / B`, `rscales = 1` and `mse = TRUE`.

## Replicate weights for a tidyverse workflow

`collect_replicate_weights()` attaches the point weight (`.weight`) and the replicate weights (`rep_1` … `rep_B`) to the active respondents, ready for srvyr.

    df <- collect_replicate_weights(boot)
    d_rep <- srvyr::as_survey_rep(df, weights = .weight,
                                  repweights = dplyr::starts_with("rep_"),
                                  type = "bootstrap", combined.weights = TRUE,
                                  scale = 1 / attr(df, "R"), rscales = 1, mse = TRUE)
    srvyr::summarise(d_rep, mean_income = srvyr::survey_mean(income, na.rm = TRUE))
    #> # A tibble: 1 × 2
    #>   mean_income mean_income_se
    #>         <dbl>          <dbl>
    #> 1      21615.           884.

## Method 3: a delete-a-PSU jackknife that re-applies the recipe

The jackknife is the natural sibling of the bootstrap: instead of resampling PSUs, it deletes one PSU at a time and re-runs the whole recipe, so the replicate weights again carry the variability of every stage. `jackknife_weights()` builds the stratified delete-a-PSU jackknife (JKn) with `strata`/`psu`; the unstratified JK1 follows from `strata = NULL`.

    jk <- jackknife_weights(spec, strata = "region", psu = "psu", progress = FALSE)
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    #> Warning: Missing values in the cell variable(s) `by` were grouped into a
    #> '(missing)' cell. Those units are adjusted within their own cell; recode the
    #> NAs if that is not intended.
    jk
    #> <weightflow jackknife>
    #>   replicates : 48 (delete-a-PSU)
    #>   units      : 417 (active: 209)
    #>   strata     : region
    #>   psu        : psu

    jack_mean(jk,  "income")     # mean income, with the JKn variance
    #>   estimate       se ci_lower ci_upper
    #> 1 21615.21 944.5971 19763.83 23466.59
    jack_total(jk, "employed")   # total employed
    #>   estimate       se ci_lower ci_upper
    #> 1 1927.219 153.9697 1625.444 2228.994

For a total it matches `survey`’s replicate jackknife exactly. As with the bootstrap, the replicate weights bridge to survey/srvyr through `as_svrepdesign(jk)`, so any estimand or domain can be estimated downstream with the recipe’s uncertainty built in.

### Lonely PSUs and parallel replicates

Strata with a single PSU carry no within-stratum resampling information. By default (`lonely_psu = "certainty"`) they are treated as self-representing and contribute no variance (a warning is issued). Setting `lonely_psu = "collapse"` merges the single-PSU strata into a pseudo-stratum so they are resampled and yield a conservative variance instead of zero.

Both `bootstrap_weights()` and `jackknife_weights()` also take `cores`: with `cores > 1` the per-replicate re-preps run in parallel (forking, so serial on Windows). The resampling is drawn up front from `seed`, so the parallel run is identical to the serial one.

## Which one to use

Use the recipe-aware bootstrap (method 1, in any of its three forms) when the nonresponse and calibration steps are a meaningful part of the design and you want their uncertainty reflected; it is the more honest variance. Use the linearization (method 2) for a quick, well-understood standard error when the adjustments are minor or you only need the design-and-clustering part. The jackknife (method 3) is the recipe-aware alternative to the bootstrap when a deterministic, replicate-based variance is preferred; it matches `survey`’s replicate jackknife for totals.

A few practical notes. More replicates give a more stable bootstrap SE; 200 is fine for exploration, 500-1000 for final figures. Each stratum needs at least two PSUs to be resampled (single-PSU strata are left untouched, with a warning). If a replicate leaves a calibration or weighting-class cell empty it is dropped with a warning; coarser `by` cells make the bootstrap more robust.